Porisma

Worked solution

Track the order of an approximation through division

If θ\theta is sufficiently small for θ3\theta^3 and higher powers of θ\theta to be neglected, find approximations for

(a) sin⁡θcos⁡2θ\dfrac{\sin\theta}{\cos2\theta},

(b) θtan⁡θ1−cos⁡θ\dfrac{\theta\tan\theta}{1-\cos\theta}.

CJC · Lecture · Example 10

(a) Rewrite the denominator with a negative exponent

Both copies give the full chain and callouts:

sin⁡θcos⁡2θ≈θ1−(2θ)2/2=θ1−2θ2=θ(1−2θ2)−1\begin{aligned}&\frac{\sin\theta}{\cos2\theta}\approx\frac{\theta}{1-(2\theta)^2/2}\\ & =\frac{\theta}{1-2\theta^2}\\ & =\theta(1-2\theta^2)^{-1}\end{aligned}

=θ[1+(−1)(−2θ2)+⋯ ]≈θ.=\theta[1+(-1)(-2\theta^2)+\cdots]\approx\theta.

The source recommends the standard binomial formula after bringing the denominator up as a negative power. Since the outer factor is θ, the first correction is cubic and lies beyond the retained order. Its callout’s reference to x² is read as the requested quadratic order in θ.

How did this part go?

(b) Retain the printed leading approximation

Both copies print

θtan⁡θ1−cos⁡θ≈θ21−(1−θ2/2)=θ2θ2/2=2.\begin{aligned}&\frac{\theta\tan\theta}{1-\cos\theta}\approx\frac{\theta^2}{1-(1-\theta^2/2)}\\ & =\frac{\theta^2}{\theta^2/2}\\ & =2.\end{aligned}

This preserves the source’s answer 2 as a leading-order approximation for small nonzero θ. The original quotient is undefined at θ=0; its limit there is 2.

How did this part go?

(b) Clarify the precision after cancelling a quadratic factor

If the instruction is read as asking for every quadratic term of the final quotient, the printed chain is insufficient. Division by an expression vanishing quadratically lowers the available order, so fourth-degree input terms are needed:

θtan⁡θ=θ2+13θ4+O(θ6),1−cos⁡θ=12θ2−124θ4+O(θ6).\theta\tan\theta=\theta^2+\frac13\theta^4+O(\theta^6),\qquad 1-\cos\theta=\frac12\theta^2-\frac1{24}\theta^4+O(\theta^6).

For small nonzero θ, cancel the common quadratic factor and expand:

θtan⁡θ1−cos⁡θ=21+θ2/3+O(θ4)1−θ2/12+O(θ4)=2+56θ2+O(θ4).\begin{aligned}&\frac{\theta\tan\theta}{1-\cos\theta}\\ & =2\frac{1+\theta^2/3+O(\theta^4)}{1-\theta^2/12+O(\theta^4)}\\ & =2+\frac56\theta^2+O(\theta^4).\end{aligned}

This independent precision clarification does not replace the preserved printed leading answer. Truncating the individual functions at quadratic order before a vanishing-denominator division can discard a required quadratic term of the final result.

How did this part go?

Common mistakes

A denominator tending to zero can lower the approximation order; retain enough terms before cancelling it.

Solution notes

Both complete printed solutions and negative-index/binomial callouts retained. Source answer 2 is preserved; the independently derived quadratic correction 5θ²/6 clarifies the requested-order ambiguity. No marks or attribution.

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